In contemporary political discourse, civil society is a term with dual meanings. First, it refers to social institutions like schools, churches, and peer groups that support and legitimize the state, aligning with Antonio Gramsci’s theory of civil society as a stabilizing force for capitalism. Second, civil society is understood as public interest organizations and social movements that advocate for social reforms and mobilize citizens to hold the state accountable. This latter role has gained prominence in recent years.
Historical Perspectives
The modern understanding of civil society closely aligns with Alexis de Tocqueville’s observations in Democracy in America (1835–40). Tocqueville argued that the decline of aristocracy in Europe created a concentration of power in the majority’s hands, risking tyranny. He proposed that voluntary associations could counterbalance state power, protect individual liberty, and foster democratic habits. Tocqueville saw these associations as schools of democracy, promoting civic virtue and cooperative problem-solving among citizens. His advocacy for freedom of association remains highly relevant today, with political parties, a free press, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) regarded as key elements of civil society.
Civil Society and Democratic Functioning
Civil society plays a critical role in democratic societies by providing spaces for citizens to develop autonomy from government control, engage in civic duties, and express diverse viewpoints. Jean L. Cohen and Andrew Arato, in Civil Society and Political Theory (1992), describe civil society as a sphere distinct from both the state and the market. This domain supplements representative democracy by enabling participatory interaction and public discourse.
Paul Hirst, in Associative Democracy (1994), proposed that voluntary associations could assume public functions, reducing the central state’s burden and curbing its power. In this model, the state’s role would be regulatory, while democratic goals would be primarily achieved through these associations.
Robert Putnam’s seminal article, Bowling Alone (1998), highlights the importance of civil society in generating social capital, defined as networks of civic engagement and reciprocity. He laments the decline in American civic participation, which threatens the quality of democracy, echoing Tocqueville’s concerns.
Civil Society as a Force for Social Change
The late 20th century witnessed civil society becoming a powerful tool against totalitarianism, particularly in Eastern Europe. The Polish Solidarity movement and Bulgaria’s Eco-glasnost demonstrate how civil society can act as a parallel structure to challenge state dominance. These movements gained traction in the 1980s, ultimately contributing to the fall of communist regimes.
Civil society has since gained renewed attention as a countermeasure to citizen apathy. It fosters public engagement and criticism of government actions, thereby strengthening democracy. Modern intellectuals advocate for independent voluntary associations free from state and market influences, emphasizing freedom of speech, association, and assembly.
Civil Society in Action
Examples of civil society’s impact include Mexico City’s urban poor organizing after the 1985 earthquake to influence government recovery plans, and civic action groups combating crime and corruption in Mexico and Nigeria. In Nigeria, local youth groups known as ‘area boys’ have gained popular support for addressing civic problems neglected by the government.
Critical Appraisal
Despite its benefits, civil society is not without flaws. Some groups suffer from elitist tendencies, and others may exploit democratic structures for undemocratic ends. For instance, Argentina’s Carapintada military faction and South Africa’s Inkatha movement have used civil society frameworks to promote exclusion and violence. These examples highlight the need for vigilant oversight within civil society to safeguard democratic values.
Conclusion
Civil society is central to democratic governance, offering a platform for citizen engagement and acting as a check on state power. However, it must remain vigilant against elements that misuse its structures. A robust, inclusive civil society can drive social justice and reduce economic inequalities, ensuring a vibrant and participatory democracy.